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Ferdinand II Of Aragon

Ferdinand II of Aragon

Ferdinand II the Catholic (Spanish: Fernando de Aragón el Católico, Catalan: Ferran d'Aragó el Católico) (March 10, 1452 – June 23, 1516) was king of Aragon, Castile, Sicily, Naples, Valencia, Sardinia and Navarre and Count of Barcelona. Ferdinand, the son of John II of Aragon by his second wife, the Aragonese noblewoman Juana Enriquez, was made King of Sicily by his father in 1468 in preparation for his marriage to Infanta Isabella, the half-sister and heiress of Henry IV of Castile. He married Isabella on October 19, 1469 in Ocaña and became Ferdinand V of Castile when Isabella succeeded her brother as Queen of Castile in 1474. The two young monarchs had initially to fight a civil war against Joan, princess of Castile aka Juana la Beltraneja, the purported daughter of Henry IV, but were ultimately successful. When Ferdinand succeeded his father as King of Aragon in 1479, the Crown of Castile and the various territories of the Crown of Aragon were united in a personal union creating for the first time since the 8th century a single political unit which might be called Spain, although the various territories were not properly administered as a single unit until the 18th century. The first decades of Ferdinand and Isabella's joint rule were taken up with the conquest of the Kingdom of Granada, the last Muslim enclave in the Iberian peninsula, which was completed by 1492. In that same year, the Jews were expelled from both Castile and Aragon, and Christopher Columbus was sent by the couple on his expedition which would ultimately discover the New World. By the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, the extra-European world was split between the crowns of Portugal and Castile by a north-south line through the Atlantic Ocean. The latter part of Ferdinand's life was largely taken up with disputes over control of Italy with successive Kings of France, the so-called Italian Wars. In 1494, Charles VIII of France invaded Italy and expelled Ferdinand's cousin, Alfonso II, from the throne of Naples. Ferdinand allied with various Italian princes and with Emperor Maximilian I, to expel the French by 1496 and install Alfonso's son, Ferdinand, on the Neapolitan throne. In 1501, following the death of Ferdinand of Naples and his succession by his uncle Frederick, Ferdinand of Aragon signed an agreement with Charles VIII's successor, Louis XII, who had just successfully asserted his claims to the Duchy of Milan, to partition Naples between them, with Campania and the Abruzzi, including Naples itself, going to the French and Ferdinand taking Apulia and Calabria. The agreement soon fell apart, and over the next several years, Ferdinand's great general Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba conquered Naples from the French, having succeeded by 1504. Ferdinand and Isabella's children included Joanna of Castile and Catherine of Aragon. Because of the power of their joint kingdoms, their daughters married with several European dynasties, setting the bases for the huge heritage of their grandson Charles V. After Isabella died that same year and left her kingdom to her daughter Joanna, Ferdinand served as her regent during her absence in the Netherlands, ruled by her husband Archduke Philip. Ferdinand attempted to retain the regency permanently, but was rebuffed by the Castilian nobility and replaced with Joanna's husband, who became Philip I of Castile. After Philip's death in 1506, with Joanna mentally unstable, and her and Philip's son Charles of Ghent only six years old, Ferdinand resumed the regency, ruling through Francisco Cardinal Jimenez de Cisneros, the Chancellor of the Kingdom. In 1508, war resumed in Italy, this time against Venice, which all the other powers on the peninsula, including Louis XII, Ferdinand, Maximilian, and Pope Julius II joined together against as the League of Cambrai. Although the French were victorious against Venice at the Battle of Agnadello, the League soon fell apart, as both the Pope and Ferdinand became suspicious of French intentions. Instead, the Holy League was formed, in which now all the powers joined together against France. In November 1511 Ferdinand and his son-in-law Henry VIII of England signed the Treaty of Westminster, pledging mutual aid between the two against France. Earlier that year, Ferdinand had conquered the southern half of the Kingdom of Navarre, which was ruled by a French nobleman, and annexed it to Spain. At this point Ferdinand remarried with the much younger Germaine of Foix (1490-1538), a grand-daughter of Queen Leonor of Navarre, to reinforce his claim to the kingdom. The Holy League was generally successful in Italy, as well, driving the French from Milan, which was restored to its Sforza dukes by the peace treaty in 1513. Although the French were successful in reconquering Milan two years later, Ferdinand died in 1516, satisfied that he had made Spain the most powerful country in Europe, and that the succession of his grandson Charles, who would inherit not only the Spanish lands of his maternal grandparents, but the Habsburg and Burgundian lands of his paternal family, would make his heirs the most powerful rulers on the continent. Charles succeeded him in the Aragonese lands, and was also granted the Castilian crown jointly with his insane mother, bringing about at long last the unification of the Spanish thrones under one head. Ferdinand is entombed in the Capilla Real of Granada, alongside his wife, his daughter Joanna and her husband Philip, and his grandson Miguel. Some scholars argue that Ferdinand, and not the unfortunate Cesare Borgia, was the true inspiration for Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince, in which he is frequently mentioned.

Spanish language

:This article is about the international language known as Spanish or Castilian. For other languages spoken in Spain see Languages of Spain. Spanish or Castilian (Spanish: español or castellano) is an Iberian Romance language, and the fourth most widely spoken language in the world according to some sources, while other sources list it as the second or third most spoken language. It is spoken as a first language by about 352 million people, or by 417 million including non-native speakers (according to 1999 estimates). Some assert that, after English, Spanish can now be considered the second most important language in the world (probably replacing even French), due to its increased usage in the United States, the high birth rate in most of the countries where it is official, the growing economies of the Spanish-speaking world, its enormous influence on the global music market, and simply due to the broad number of areas on the Earth's surface that the language is spoken in.

"Spanish" or "Castilian"

Spaniards tend to call this language español when contrasting it with languages of other states (for example: in a list with French and English), but call it castellano (Castilian, from the Castile region) when contrasting it with other languages of Spain (such as Galician, Basque, and Catalan). In some parts of Spain, mainly where the people speak Galician, Basque, and Catalan, it is considered offensive to call the language español, as that is what Francisco Franco called it during his reign. For the rest of the Spanish-speaking world, speakers of the language in some areas refer to it as español, and in others castellano is more common. Castellano is the name given to Spanish language in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, Perú, Uruguay and Venezuela. Some philologists use Castilian only when speaking of the language spoken in Castile during the Middle Ages, stating that it is preferable to use Spanish for its modern form. Castilian can be also a subdialect of Spanish spoken in most parts of modern day Castile. It would have a series of characteristics and a specific pronunciation different to the one of Andalusia or Aragon for example, where they would speak different subdialects.

Classification and related languages

Spanish is a member of the Romance branch of Indo-European, descended largely from Latin and having much in common with its European geographical neighbors. Spanish is related to several languages in terms of phonology, grammar and orthography. Of these, Portuguese is perhaps one of the most similar in terms of major languages. However, Spanish is also closely related to Catalan, Asturian, Galician and several other Romance languages. Spanish has fewer similarities with French and Italian but shares strong ties due to Latin roots. Portuguese is orthographically similar in many ways to Spanish but it has a very distinctive phonology. A speaker of one of these languages may require some practice to effectively understand a speaker of the other (although generally it is easier for a Portuguese native speaker to understand Spanish than the other way around). Compare, for example: :Ela fecha sempre a janela antes de jantar. (Portuguese) :Ella cierra siempre la ventana antes de cenar. (Spanish) Some less common phrasings and word choices have closer cognates in Spanish because Portuguese has managed to retain a much larger vocabulary, with stronger Latin heritage: :Ela cerra sempre a janela antes de cear. (less common Portuguese) (Which translates as "She always closes the window before having dinner.") In some places, Spanish and Portuguese are spoken almost interchangeably. Portuguese speakers are generally able to read Spanish, and Spanish speakers are generally able to read Portuguese, even if they cannot understand the spoken language. In fact, the number of bilingual speakers in Brazil (where Portuguese is the official language) has greatly risen because nearly every nation bordering Brazil is Spanish speaking.

History

The Spanish language developed from vulgar Latin, with influence from Celtiberian, Basque and Arabic, in the north of the Iberian Peninsula (see Iberian Romance languages). Typical features of Spanish diachronical phonology include lenition (Latin vita, Spanish vida), palatalization (Latin annum, Spanish año) and diphthongation (stem-changing) of short e and o from Vulgar Latin (Latin terra, Spanish tierra; Latin novus, Spanish nuevo). Similar phenomena can be found in most other Romance languages as well. During the Reconquista, this northern dialect was carried south, and indeed is still a minority language in northern Morocco. The first Latin to Spanish dictionary (Gramática de la Lengua Castellana) was written in Salamanca, Spain, in 1492 by Elio Antonio de Nebrija. When Isabella of Castile was presented with the book, she asked, What do I want a work like this for, if I already know the language?, to which he replied, Ma'am, the language is the instrument of the Empire. From the 16th century on, the language was brought to the Americas, Federated States of Micronesia, Guam, Marianas, Palau and the Philippines by Spanish colonization. In the 20th century, Spanish was introduced in Equatorial Guinea and Western Sahara. For details on borrowed words and other external influences in Spanish, see Influences on the Spanish language.

Geographic distribution

Spanish is one of the official languages of the United Nations and the European Union. The majority of its speakers are confined to the Western Hemisphere, Europe and the Spanish territories in Africa (Canary Islands, Ceuta and Melilla). With approximately 106 million first-language and second-language speakers, Mexico boasts the largest population of Spanish-speakers in the world. The four next largest populations reside in Colombia (44 million), Spain (c. 44 million), Argentina (39 million) and the United States of America (U.S. residents age 5 and older who speak Spanish at home number 31 million) [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/DatasetMainPageServlet?_program=ACS&_lang=en&_ts=134303235020]. Spanish is the official and most important language in 20 countries: Argentina, Bolivia (co-official Quechua and Aymara), Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea (co-official French), Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay (co-official Guaraní), Peru (co-official Quechua and Aymara), Puerto Rico (co-official English), Spain (co-official Catalan/Valencian, Galician and Basque), Uruguay, Venezuela, and Western Sahara (co-official Arabic). In Belize, Spanish holds no official recognition, however, it is the native tongue of about 50% of the population, and is spoken as a second language by another 20%. It is arguably the most important and widely-spoken on a popular level, but English remains the sole official language. In the United States, Spanish is spoken by three-quarters of its 41.3 million Hispanic population. It is also being learned and spoken by a small, though slowly growing, proportion of its non-Hispanic population for its increasing use in business, commerce, and both domestic and international politics. Spanish does hold co-official status in the state of New Mexico, and in the unincorporated U.S. territory of Puerto Rico. See Spanish in the United States for further information. In Brazil, Spanish has obtained an important status as a second language among young students and many skilled professionals. In recent years, with Brazil decreasing its reliance on trade with the USA and Europe and increasing trade and ties with its Spanish-speaking neighbours (especially as a member of the Mercosur trading bloc), much stress has been placed on bilingualism and Spanish proficiency in the country. On July 07 2005, the National Congress of Brazil gave final approval to a bill that makes Spanish a second language in the country’s public and private primary schools [http://www.mercopress.com/Detalle.asp?NUM=5996]. The close genetic relationship between the two languages, along with the fact that Spanish is the dominant and official language of almost every country that borders Brazil, adds to the popularity. Standard Spanish and Ladino (Judæo-Spanish spoken by Sephardic Jews) may also be spoken natively by some Spanish-descended Brazilians, immigrant workers from neighbouring Spanish-speaking countries and Brazilian Sephardim respectively, who have maintained it as their home language. Additionally, in Brazil's border states that have authority over their educational systems, Spanish has been taught for years. In many other border towns and villages (especially along the Uruguayo-Brazilian border) a mixed language commonly known as Portuñol is also spoken. In European countries other than Spain and Andorra (where it holds no official status), it may be spoken by some of their Spanish-speaking immigrant communities, primarily in the Netherlands, Italy, France, Germany and the United Kingdom where there is a strong community in London. There has been a sharp increase in the popularity of Spanish in the UK over the last few years. It is spoken by much of the population of Gibraltar, though English remains the only official language. Yanito, an English-Spanish mixed language is also spoken. Among the countries and territories in Oceania, Spanish is the seventh most spoken language in Australia. It is also spoken by the approximately 3,000 inhabitants of Easter Island, a territorial possession of Chile. The island nations of Guam, Palau, Northern Marianas, Marshall Islands and Federated States of Micronesia all once had Spanish speakers, but Spanish has long since been forgotten, and now only exists as an influence on the local native languages. In Asia the Spanish language has long been in decline. Spanish ceased to be an official language of the Philippines in 1987, and it is now spoken by less than 0.01% of the population; 2,658 speakers (1990 Census). However, the sole existing Spanish-Asiatic creole language, Chabacano, is also spoken by an additional 0.4% of the Filipino population; 292,630 (1990 census). Most other Philippine languages contain generous quantities of Spanish loan words. Among other Asian countries, Spanish may also be spoken by pockets of ex-immigrant communities, such as Mexican-born ethnic Chinese deported to China or third and fourth generation ethnic Japanese Peruvians returning to their ancestral homeland of Japan. Spanish is also spoken by segments of the populations in Aruba, Canada, Curaçao, Israel (both standard Spanish and Ladino), northern Morocco (both standard Spanish and Ladino), Netherlands Antilles, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey (Ladino), and the U.S. Virgin Islands. In Antarctica, the territorial claims and permanent bases made by Argentina, Chile, Peru and Spain also place Spanish as the official and working language of these enclaves.

Variations

There are important variations among the various regions of Spain and Spanish-speaking America. In Spain the North Castilian dialect pronunciation is commonly taken as the national standard (although the characteristic weak pronouns usage or laísmo of this dialect is deprecated). Spanish has three second-person singular pronouns: tú, usted, and in some parts of Latin America, vos (the use of this form is called voseo). Generally speaking, tú and vos are informal and used with friends (though in Spain vos is considered a highly exalted archaism that is now confined to liturgy). Usted is universally regarded as the formal form, and is used as a mark of respect, as when addressing one's elders or strangers. The pronoun vosotros is the plural form of tú in most of Spain, although in the Americas (and some particular southern-Spain cities such as Cádiz) it is replaced with ustedes. It is remarkable that the informal use of ustedes in southern Spain does not keep the proper pronoun-verb agreement: while the formal form of "you go" would be ustedes van, in Cádiz the informal form would be constructed as ustedes vais, making use of the second person of the plural instead of the third (which constitutes the formal construction). Vos is used extensively as the primary spoken form of the second-person singular pronoun in various countries around Latin America, including Argentina, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Paraguay and Uruguay. In Argentina, Uruguay, and increasingly in Paraguay, is it also the standard form used in the media, whereas media in other voseante countries continue to use usted or tú. Vos may also be present in other countries as a limited regionalism. Its use, depending on country and region, can be considered the accepted standard or reproached as sub-standard and considered as speech of the ignorant and uneducated. The interpersonal situations in which the employment of vos is acceptable may also differ considerably between regions. Spanish forms also differ regarding second-person plural pronouns. The Spanish dialects of Latin America have only one form of the second-person plural; ustedes (formal/familiar). Meanwhile, in Spain there are two; ustedes (formal) and vosotros (familiar/informal). The RAE (Real Academia Española), in association with twenty-one other national language academies, exercises a controlling influence through its publication of dictionaries and widely respected grammar guides and style guides. In part due to this influence, and also because of other socio-historical reasons, a neutral standardized form of the language (Standard Spanish) is widely acknowledged for use in literature, academic contexts and the media.

Grammar

Spanish is a relatively inflected language, with a two-gender system and about fifty conjugated forms per verb, but small noun declension and limited pronominal declension. (For a detailed overview of verbs, see Spanish verbs and Spanish irregular verbs.) As for syntax, the unmarked sentence word order is Subject Verb Object, though variations are common. Spanish is right-branching, using prepositions, and with adjectives generally coming after nouns. Spanish is also pro-drop (allows the deletion of pronouns when pragmatically unnecessary) and verb-framed.

Sounds

The consonantal system of Castilian Spanish, by the 16th century, underwent the following important changes that differentiated it from some nearby Romance languages, such as Portuguese and Catalan:
- The initial , that had evolved into a vacillating , was lost in most words (although this etymological h- has been preserved in spelling).
- The voiced labiodental fricative (that was written u or v) merged with the bilabial oclusive (written b). Orthographically, b and v do not correspond to different phonemes in contemporary Spanish, excepting some areas in Spain, particularly the ones influenced by Catalan/Valencian and some Andalusia.
- The voiced alveolar fricative (that was written s between vowels) merged with the voiceless (that was written s, or ss between vowels).
- The voiced alveolar affricate (that was written z) merged with the voiceless (that was written ç, ce, ci), and then evolved into the interdental , now written z, ce, ci. But in Andalucia, the Canary Islands and the Americas these sounds merged with as well. Notice that the ç or c with cedilla was in its origin a Spanish letter, although is no longer used.
- The voiced postalveolar fricative (that was written j, ge, gi) merged with the voiceless (that was written x, as in Quixote), and then evolved by the 17th century into the modern velar sound , now written j, ge, gi. The consonantal system of Medieval Spanish has been better preserved in Ladino, the language spoken by the descendants of the Sephardic Jews who were expelled from Spain in the 15th century.

Lexical stress

Spanish has a phonemic stress system — the place where stress will fall cannot be predicted by other features of the word, and two words can differ by just a change in stress. For example, the word camino (with penultimate stress) means "road" or "I walk" whereas caminó (with final stress) means "he/she/it walked". Also, since Spanish pronounces all syllables at a more or less constant tempo, it is said to be a syllable-timed language.

Writing system

The pronunciation of any Spanish word can be perfectly predicted from its written form. Spanish is written using the Latin alphabet, with the addition of ñ (eñe). Ch and ll also have their own places in the alphabet (a, b, c, ch, d, ..., l, ll, m, n, ñ, ...). Since 1990, however, words containing the letters ch and ll have been alphabetized as though spelled with the separate letters c - h and l - l. The letter u sometimes carries diaeresis (ü) after the letter g, and the stressed vowel carries an acute accent (á) in many words. Exclamatory and interrogative clauses begin with inverted question and exclamation marks.

Examples of Spanish

Note, the third column uses the International Phonetic Alphabet, the standard for linguists, to transcribe the sounds. There are several examples of travellers' vocabulary and one literary reference. You can listen to these words being read out. Both the transcription and the recording represent standard Castilian pronunciation. El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha, Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (opening sentence).

External links

About the Spanish language

-
- [http://www.rae.es Official page of the RAE] (in Spanish)
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=spa Ethnologue report for Spanish]
- [http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/i.e.mackenzie/index.html Spanish Language & Linguistics Website]
- [http://assets.cambridge.org/0521805872/sample/0521805872WS.pdf PDF: A history of the Spanish language]
- [http://www.sispain.org/english/language/worldwid.html Numbers of speakers by countries]
- [http://www.vistawide.com/spanish/why_spanish.htm Why learn Spanish?] 10 reasons for learning Spanish
- [http://spanish.about.com Spanish Language] Collection of lessons and other resources
- [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/2444/splatin.html Spanish evolution from Latin]
- [http://www.trustedtranslations.com/spanish_language.asp Spanish Language Characteristics] Some characteristics of Spanish Language

Dictionaries

- [http://buscon.rae.es/diccionario/drae.htm DRAE, Dictionary of the RAE] (Spanish-spanish)
- [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Spanish-english/ Spanish — English Dictionary]: from Webster's Rosetta Edition.
- [http://www.diccionarios.com Diccionarios.com]
- [http://www.my-spanish-dictionary.com/ An English-Spanish Dictionary]
- [http://www.tododiccionarios.com/ Tododiccionarios.com] a directory of reference works in English or Spanish, classified by subject, with several thousand links.
- [http://spanishdict.com/ Spanishdict.com] Another Spanish-English dictionary.
- [http://wordreference.com/ Wordreference.com] Comprehensive Spanish-English-Spanish dictionary.
- [http://www.tomisimo.org/ Tomísimo.org] A Spanish-English dictionary.

Grammatical help

- [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Spanish Spanish grammar Wikibook]
- [http://www.studyspanish.com/tutorial.htm Spanish Grammar Tutorial - with quizzes, tests, and oral activities]
- [http://tchaidze.com/spangram/tenses.html#correspondence Usage of Tenses]
- [http://users.ipfw.edu/jehle/courses/accents.htm Use of written accent marks in Spanish]
- [http://verbs.obrist.org Spanish Verb Forms] — Search and conjugate Spanish verbs.
- [http://www.helloworld.com.es/english/quick%20reference/grammar.htm Grammar and more] Examples, Uses, Explanations of Grammar Points and a Free Personal Spanish Verb Conjugator

Tutorials

- [http://www.declan-software.com/spanish Spanish vocabulary learning software with audio]
- [http://spanish.mypage.org Spanish for beginners and travelers]
- [http://learno.com/spanish/index.html Free Learno.com online Spanish tutorial]
- [http://www.listenandlearn.org Practice Spanish Online with Audio Stories]
- [http://www.studyspanish.com/ StudySpanish.com] Popular website for beginners
- [http://www.angelfire.com/ego/pdf/ng/argentina/arsp.html Rioplatense Spanish] Spanish from the River Plate basin
- [http://www.spanish-kit.net Spanish-kit.net] Free Downloadable Spanish grammars, and vocabulary learning tools.
- [http://www.fridaspanish.com Fridaspanish.com Learn Spanish] Mexican Spanish
- [http://www.ielanguages.com/spanish.html Free Spanish Language Tutorial at ielanguages.com]
- [http://www.quiz-tree.com/Spanish_Language_main.html Free Spanish quizzes with audio by a native speaker]
- [http://www.spanicity.com/ SpaniCity] Free Spanish lessons, sounds, grammar and dictionary
- [http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&to_lang=14&learn-Spanish/ Learn and listen to useful expressions in Spanish] Each expression is presented with an audio recording and an illustration
- Spanish phrasebook on Wikitravel

Resources

March 10

March 10 is the 69th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (70th in Leap years). There are 296 days remaining.

Events

- 241 BC - First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates Islands - The Romans sinks the Carthaginian fleet; end of First Punic War.
- 1496 - Christopher Columbus leaves Hispaniola for Spain, ending his second visit to the Western Hemisphere.
- 1629 - Charles I of England dissolves Parliament, starting the Eleven Years Tyranny in which there was no parliament.
- 1804 - Louisiana Purchase: In St. Louis, a formal ceremony is conducted to transfer ownership of Louisiana Territory from France to the United States.
- 1814 - Napoleon I of France is defeated at the Battle of Laon in France.
- 1831 - The French Foreign Legion is established by King Louis-Philippe to support his war in Algeria.
- 1848 - The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is ratified by the United States Senate, ending the Mexican-American War.
- 1861 - El Hadj Umar Tall seizes the city of Segou, destroying the Bambara Empire of Mali.
- 1864 - Montana vigilantes hang Jack Slade.
- 1864 - American Civil War: The Red River Campaign begins as Union troops reach Alexandria, Louisiana.
- 1876 - Alexander Graham Bell makes the first successful telephone call by saying "Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you."
- 1880 - Members of the Salvation Army land in the United States and begin operations.
- 1891 - Almon Strowger, an undertaker in Topeka Kansas, patents the strowger switch, a device which led to the automation of telephone circuit switching.
- 1893 - Côte d'Ivoire becomes a French colony.
- 1902 - Boer War: South African Boers win their last battle over British forces, with the capture of a British general and 200 of his men.
- 1902 - A United States court of appeals rules that Thomas Edison did not invent the movie camera.
- 1902 - Tochangri, Turkey, is completely destroyed by an earthquake.
- 1912 - Yuan Shikai is sworn in as the second Provisional President of the Republic of China.
- 1926 - The first Book-of-the-Month-Club selection is produced
- 1933 - An earthquake in Long Beach, California kills 120 people.
- 1945 - The U.S. Army Air Force firebombs Tokyo, and the resulting firestorm kills more than 100,000 people, mostly civilians.
- 1948 - The Indian Union Muslim League is founded, by remnants of the old Muslim League.
- 1951 - Henri Queuille becomes Prime Minister of France
- 1952 - Fulgencio Batista leads a successful coup in Cuba
- 1964 - The Ford Mustang is first produced by the Ford Motor Company.
- 1966 - Princess Beatrix of the Netherlands marries Claus von Amsberg.
- 1969 - In Memphis, Tennessee, James Earl Ray pleads guilty to assassinating Martin Luther King Jr. Ray would later retract his guilty plea.
- 1970 - Vietnam War: Capt. Ernest Medina is charged with My Lai war crimes
- 1975 - Vietnam War: North Vietnamese troops attack Ban Me Thout, South Vietnam, on their way to capturing Saigon.
- 1977 - Rings of Uranus: Astronomers discover rings around Uranus.
- 1982 - The United States places an embargo on Libyan petroleum imports because of their support of terrorist groups.
- 1982 - Syzygy: all 9 planets align on the same side of the Sun.
- 1987 - Reproductive rights: The Holy See condemns the practice of surrogate motherhood, along with test-tube babies and artificial insemination.
- 1990 - In Haiti, Prosper Avril is ousted 18 months after seizing power in a coup.
- 1991 - Gulf War: Operation Phase Echo - 540,000 American troops begin to leave the Persian Gulf.
- 1996 - The "Summit of Peacemakers" takes place in Egypt.
- 1997 - Buffy the Vampire Slayer premieres on the WB network.
- 1998 - American troops stationed in the Persian Gulf begin to receive the first vaccinations against anthrax.
- 2000 - The NASDAQ stock market index peaks at 5048.62, signaling the beginning of the end of the dot-com boom.
- 2004 - Six Flags sells 8 of its theme parks to private investors.
- 2005 - In Edmonton, Alberta, the largest memorial (of its kind) in Canadian history was held for four RCMP constables who were gunned down March 3, 2005.

Births

- 1415 - Vasili II of Russia, Grand Prince of Moscow (d. 1462)
- 1452 - King Ferdinand II of Aragon (d. 1516)
- 1503 - Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1564)
- 1536 - Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, English politician (d. 1572)
- 1606 - Edmund Waller, English poet (d. 1687)
- 1628 - Marcello Malpighi, Italian physician (d. 1694)
- 1709 - Georg Steller, German naturalist (d. 1746)
- 1749 - Lorenzo da Ponte, Italian librettist (d. 1838)
- 1769 - Joseph Williamson, English philanthropist and tunnel builder (d. 1840)
- 1772 - Friedrich von Schlegel, German aesthetician, poet, and publicist (d. 1829)
- 1776 - Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Queen of Prussia (d. 1810)
- 1788 - Joseph von Eichendorff, German writer (d. 1857)
- 1842 - Mykola Lysenko, Ukrainian composer (d. 1912)
- 1844 - Pablo de Sarasate, Spanish violinist (d. 1908)
- 1845 - Tsar Alexander III of Russia (d. 1894)
- 1847 - Kate Sheppard, New Zealand suffragist (d. 1934)
- 1880 - Broncho Billy Anderson, American actor (d. 1971)
- 1888 - Barry Fitzgerald, Irish actor (d. 1966)
- 1891 - Sam Jaffe, American actor (d. 1984)
- 1892 - Arthur Honegger, French-born Swiss composer (d. 1955)
- 1892 - Gregory La Cava, American director, producer, and writer (d. 1952)
- 1903 - Bix Beiderbecke, American musician (d. 1931)
- 1915 - Harry Bertoia, Italian artist and designer (d. 1978)
- 1919 - Marion Hutton, American singer (d. 1987)
- 1923 - Val Logsdon Fitch, American nuclear physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1925 - Manolis Anagnostakis, Greek poet (d. 2005)
- 1928 - James Earl Ray, American assassin (d. 1998)
- 1930 - Claude Bolling, French jazz pianist and composer
- 1936 - Sepp Blatter, Swiss hockey and football official
- 1940 - Chuck Norris, American actor and martial artist
- 1941 - Joe Viterelli, American actor (d. 2004)
- 1946 - Jim Valvano, American basketball coach (d. 1993)
- 1947 - Kim Campbell, nineteenth Prime Minister of Canada
- 1947 - Bob Greene, American journalist
- 1947 - Tom Scholz, American songwriter and guitarist
- 1952 - Morgan Tsvangirai, Zimbabwe politician
- 1957 - Marlon Jackson, American singer
- 1957 - Osama bin Laden, Saudi-born Islamic extremist
- 1958 - Sharon Stone, American actress
- 1961 - Laurel Clark, physician and astronaut (d. 2003)
- 1963 - Jeff Ament, American musician (Pearl Jam)
- 1963 - Neneh Cherry, Swedish musician
- 1964 - Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex
- 1965 - Rod Woodson, American football player
- 1966 - Edie Brickell, American singer
- 1971 - Ugonna Wachuku, Nigerian writer
- 1972
- Matt Kenseth, American race car driver
- Takashi Fujii (Matthew Minami), Japanese television performer
- 1973 - Eva Herzigova, Czech model
- 1981 - Samuel Eto'o, Cameroonian footballer
- 1983 - Carrie Underwood, American singer
- 1992 - Emily Osment, American actress

Deaths

- 1291 - Arghun, Persian ruler
- 1510 - Johann Geiler von Kaisersberg, Swiss-born preacher (b. 1445)
- 1513 - John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford, English commander (b. 1443)
- 1549 - Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley, English politician and diplomat
- 1584 - Thomas Norton, English politician and writer (b. 1532)
- 1585 - Rembert Dodoens, Flemish physician and botanist (b. 1517)
- 1588 - Theodor Zwinger, Swiss scholar (b. 1533)
- 1669 - John Denham, English poet (b. 1615)
- 1670 - Johann Rudolf Glauber, German chemist (b. 1604)
- 1776 - Élie Catherine Fréron, French critic (b. 1719)
- 1776 - Niclas Sahlgren, Swedish merchant and philanthropist (b. 1701)
- 1792 - John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, Prime Minister of Great Britain (b. 1713)
- 1832 - Muzio Clementi, Italian composer (b. 1752)
- 1861 - Taras Shevchenko, Ukrainian poet (b. 1814)
- 1895 - Charles Frederick Worth, English-born couturier (b. 1826)
- 1913 - Harriet Tubman, American abolitionist (b. 1820)
- 1937 - Yevgeny Zamyatin, Russian writer (b. 1884)
- 1940 - Mikhaïl Boulgakov, Russian writer (b. 1891)
- 1942 - William Henry Bragg, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1862)
- 1948 - Jan Masaryk, Foreign Minister of Czechoslovakia (b. 1886)
- 1966 - Frits Zernike, Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1888)
- 1973 - Eugene 'Bull' Connor, American segregationist (b. 1897)
- 1984 - June Marlowe, American actress (b. 1903)
- 1985 - Konstantin Chernenko, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (b. 1911)
- 1986 - Ray Milland, British actor (b. 1907)
- 1988 - Andy Gibb, English-born singer (b. 1958)
- 1994 - Abdelkader Alloula, Algerian playwright (assassinated) (b. 1929)
- 1997 - La Vern Baker, American singer (b. 1929)
- 1998 - Lloyd Bridges, American actor (b. 1913)
- 2001 - Massimo Morsello, Italian musician and far right activist (b. 1958)
- 2003 - Barry Sheene, British motorcycle racer (b. 1950)
- 2004 - Dave Blood, American musician
- 2005 - Dave Allen, Irish comedian (b. 1936)
- 2005 - Danny Joe Brown, American singer (Molly Hatchet) (b. 1951)
- 1992

Holidays and observances

- Girl Scout Sunday
- Doctors Day (Venezuela)

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/10 BBC: On This Day] ---- March 9 - March 11 - February 11 - April 11 -- listing of all days ko:3월 10일 ja:3月10日 simple:March 10 th:10 มีนาคม

June 23

June 23 is the 174th day of the year (175th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 191 days remaining.

Events

- 1295 - Pope Boniface VIII enters Rome.
- 1305 - Flemish-French peace treaty signed at Athis-sur-Orge.
- 1314 - Start of the Battle of Bannockburn south of Stirling, Edward II of England & Robert I of Scotland met in battle. Scotland won and Edward fled the field and Scotland.
- 1532 - Henry VIII & François I sign secret treaty against Emperor Charles V.
- 1611 - The mutinous crew of Henry Hudson's fourth voyage sets Henry, his son and seven loyal crew members adrift in an open boat in the Atlantic Ocean; they are never heard from again.
- 1661 - Marriage contract between Charles II of England & Catharina of Portugal.
- 1683 - William Penn signs friendship treaty with Lenni Lenape Indians in Pennsylvania.
- 1713 - French residents of Acadia given one year to declare allegiance to Britain or leave Nova Scotia Canada. [http://www.acadian-cajun.com/acadia5.htm]
- 1724 - Russia and Turkey sign Treaty of Constantinople.
- 1757 - Battle of Plassey - 3000 British troops under Robert Clive defeat a 50,000 strong Indian army under Siraj-ud-Dawlah at Plassey.
- 1758 - Seven Years War: Battle of Krefeld - British forces defeat French troops at Krefeld in Germany.
- 1760 - Seven Years War: Battle of Landshut - Austria beats Prussia.
- 1794 - Empress Catherine II grants Jews permission to settle in Kiev.
- 1810 - John Jacob Astor forms the Pacific Fur Company.
- 1812 - Napoleon begins the famous offensive on Russia, which fails horribly.
- 1858 - Six-year-old Edgardo Mortara is seized by Papal authorities.
- 1860 - The US Congress establishes the Government Printing Office.
- 1865 - American Civil War: At Fort Towson in Oklahoma Territory Confederate General Stand Watie surrenders the last significant rebel army.
- 1887 - The Rocky Mountains Park Act becomes law in Canada, creating that nation's first national park, Banff National Park. [http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/cseh-twih/archives2_E.asp?id=25]
- 1888 - Frederick Douglass is the first African-American nominated for US president.
- 1894 - International Olympic Committee is founded at the Sorbonne, Paris, at the initiative of Baron Pierre de Coubertin.
- 1931 - Wiley Post and Harold Gatty take off from Roosevelt Field, Long Island in an attempt to accomplish the first round-the-world flight in a single-engine plane. [http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Explorers_Record_Setters_and_Daredevils/Wiley_Post/EX27.htm]
- 1938 - The Civil Aeronautics Act is signed into law, forming the Civil Aeronautics Authority in the United States.
- 1938 - Marineland opens near St. Augustine, Florida.
- 1940 - World War II: German leader Adolf Hitler surveys newly defeated Paris in now occupied France.
- 1941 - Lithuanian Activist Front initiates Lithuanian 1941 independence from the Soviet Union; it lasted only briefly as the Nazis occupied Lithuania a few weeks later.
- 1944 - Thomas Mann becomes a US citizen.
- 1947 - The United States Senate follows the United States House of Representatives in overriding U.S. President Harry S. Truman's veto of the Taft-Hartley Act.
- 1955 - In the Strahov Stadium in Prague the 1st all-national Spartakiáda begins.
- 1956 - Gamal Abdel Nasser elected president of Egypt.
- 1958 - The Dutch Reformed Church accepts women ministers.
- 1959 - Convicted Manhattan Project spy Klaus Fuchs is released after only nine years in prison and allowed to emigrate to Dresden, East Germany (where he resumed a scientific career).
- 1959 - A fire in a resort hotel in Stalheim, Norway kills 34 people.
- 1960 - Japan signs security treaty with the U.S.
- 1962 - Larry Doby retires from the Cleveland Indians to play in Japan.
- 1967 - Cold War: U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson meets with Soviet Premier Aleksei Kosygin in Glassboro, New Jersey for the three-day Glassboro Summit Conference.
- 1968 - 74 are killed and 150 injured in a soccer stampede towards a closed exit in a Buenos Aires stadium.
- 1969 - Warren E. Burger is sworn in as chief justice of the United States Supreme Court by retiring chief Earl Warren.
- 1972 - Watergate Scandal: U.S. President Richard M. Nixon and White House chief of staff H. R. Haldeman are taped talking about using the Central Intelligence Agency to obstruct the Federal Bureau of Investigation's investigation into the Watergate break-ins.
- 1979 - Sydney: New South Wales Premier Neville Wran officially opens the Eastern Suburbs Railway. It operates as a shuttle between Central & Bondi Junction until full integration with the Illawarra Line during 1980.
- 1985 - A Boeing 747 carrying Air India Flight 182 blew-up 31,000 feet (9500 m) above the Atlantic Ocean, South of Ireland, killing all 329 aboard.
- 1989 - The movie Batman is released in the United States.
- 1990 - Moldavia declares independence.
- 1991 - Sonic the Hedgehog is released for the Sega Genesis in North America.
- 1992 - Mafia boss John Gotti is sentenced to life in prison after being found guilty of conspiracy to commit murder and racketeering on April 2.
- 1992 - Yitzhak Rabin wins the Israeli parlamentary elections..
- 1996 - Clan Knightmare, a Quake gaming clan was formed
- 2005 - The IWW Centennial in Chicago, Illinois

Births

- 47 BC - Pharaoh Ptolemy XV of Egypt
- 1433 - Francis II, Duke of Brittany (d. 1488)
- 1456 - Margaret of Denmark, queen of James III of Scotland (d. 1486)
- 1534 - Oda Nobunaga, Japanese warlord (d. 1582)
- 1596 - Johan Banér, Swedish soldier (d. 1641)
- 1612 - André Tacquet, Belgian mathematician (d. 1660)
- 1668 - Giambattista Vico, Italian philosopher and historian (d. 1744)
- 1683 - Etienne Fourmont, French orientalist (d. 1745)
- 1716 - Fletcher Norton, 1st Baron Grantley, English politician (d. 1789)
- 1763 - Josephine de Beauharnais, Empress of France (d. 1814)
- 1800 - Karol Marcinkowski, Polish physician and social activist (d. 1846)
- 1889 - Anna Akhmatova, Russian poet (d. 1966)
- 1894 - Alfred Kinsey, American entomologist and sexologist (d. 1956)
- 1894 - King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom (d. 1972)
- 1907 - James Meade, English economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995)
- 1910 - Jean Anouilh, French dramatist (d. 1987)
- 1910 - Gordon B. Hinckley, president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
- 1912 - Alan Turing, English mathematician (d. 1954)
- 1916 - Len Hutton, English cricketer (d. 1990)
- 1927 - Bob Fosse, American choreographer (d. 1987)
- 1929 - June Carter Cash, American singer (d. 2003)
- 1936 - Costas Simitis, Prime Minister of Greece
- 1940 - Adam Faith, English singer and actor (d. 2003)
- 1940 - Lord Irvine of Lairg, Scottish Lord Chancellor
- 1940 - Wilma Rudolph, American runner (d. 1994)
- 1941 - Robert Hunter, American singer and songwriter (The Grateful Dead)
- 1943 - James Levine, American conductor
- 1943 - Vint Cerf, American Internet pioneer
- 1946 - Ted Shackleford, American actor
- 1948 - Clarence Thomas, U.S. Supreme Court Justice
- 1948 - Darhyl S. Ramsey, American author and professor of music education
- 1955 - Glenn Danzig, American musician (The Misfits and Danzig)
- 1957 - Frances McDormand, American actress
- 1962 - Chuck Billy, American singer
- 1963 - Colin Montgomerie, Scottish golfer
- 1964 - Joss Whedon, American producer, director, and screenwriter
- 1966 - Chico DeBarge, American musician (DeBarge)
- 1972 - Selma Blair, American actress
- 1972 - Zinedine Zidane, French footballer
- 1973 - Marie N, Latvian singer
- 1975 - Kevin Dyson, American football player
- 1976 - Brandon Stokley, American football player
- 1976 - Patrick Vieira, French footballer
- 1977 - Jason Mraz, American singer and songwriter
- 1979 - LaDainian Tomlinson, American football player
- 1980 - Ramnaresh Sarwan, Guyanese cricketer

Deaths

- 79 - Vespasian, Roman Emperor (b. AD 9)
- 1018 - Henry I of Austria
- 1516 - King Ferdinand II of Aragon (b. 1452)
- 1555 - Pedro Mascarenhas, Portuguese explorer (b. 1470)
- 1582 - Shimizu Muneharu, Japanese military leader (b. 1537)
- 1615 - Mashita Nagamori, Japanese warlord (b. 1545)
- 1677 - Wilhelm Ludwig, Duke of Württemberg (b. 1647)
- 1686 - William Coventry, English statesman
- 1707 - John Mill, English theologian
- 1733 - Johann Jakob Scheuchzer, Swiss scholar (b. 1672)
- 1770 - Mark Akenside, English poet and physician (b. 1721)
- 1775 - Karl Ludwig, Freiherr von Pöllnitz, German adventurer and writer (b. 1692)
- 1806 - Mathurin Jacques Brisson, French naturalist (b. 1723)
- 1832 - James Hall, Scottish geologist (b. 1761)
- 1891 - Wilhelm Eduard Weber, German physicist (b. 1804)
- 1893 - Sir Theophilus Shepstone British South African statesmen (b. 1817)
- 1956 - Reinhold Glière, Russian composer (b. 1875)
- 1959 - Boris Vian, French writer and musician (b. 1920)
- 1969 - Volmari Iso-Hollo, Finnish athlete (b. 1907)
- 1980 - Clyfford Still, American painter (b. 1904)
- 1995 - Jonas Salk, American medical researcher (b. 1914)
- 1996 - Andreas Papandreou, Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1919)
- 1998 - Maureen O'Sullivan, Irish actress (b. 1911)
- 2002 - Pedro 'El Rockero' Alcazar, Panamanian boxer (b. 1975)
- 2003 - Vasil Bykau, Belarusian writer (b. 1924)
- 2003 - Maynard Jackson, Mayor of Atlanta, Georgia (b. 1938)

Holidays and observances

- Ancient Latvia - Jāņi held.
- Midsummer's Eve, Christianized the eve of the feast of Saint John the Baptist, is celebrated in much of Northern Europe and the British Islands
- Victory Day - Estonia
- Saint Jonas Day - Lithuania

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/23 BBC: On This Day] ---- June 22 - June 24 - May 23 - July 23 -- listing of all days ko:6월 23일 ms:23 Jun ja:6月23日 simple:June 23 th:23 มิถุนายน

Aragon

:This article is about the geographical region. For the poet, see Louis Aragon. For the Olympic medallist, see Aragon (horse). For the commune in the Aude département of France, see Aragon, Aude. Aragon (Spanish and Aragonese: Aragón; Catalan: Aragó) is an autonomous community of north-eastern Spain. It has an area of 47,719 km² with a population of 1,217,514 (2003). Aragon is bounded on the north by France, on the east by Catalonia, on the south by Valencia, and on the west by Castile-La Mancha, Castile-Leon, La Rioja, and Navarre. It comprises the provinces of Zaragoza (English: Saragossa or Caesaraugusta), Huesca, and Teruel. It is traversed by the Ebro, mountainous in the north; with beautiful fertile valleys, rather barren, in the south. Its capital is Zaragoza. In addition to its three provinces, Aragon is subdivided into 33 comarcas (counties).

Language

In addition to Spanish, there is an original Aragonese language, still spoken in some valleys of the Pyrenees. Catalan is spoken as well in some comarques (counties) adjacent to Catalonia known, as a whole, as La Franja; in particular: the Ribagorzan dialect in Ribagorza and La Litera, and a dialect similar to that of Terra Alta in Matarraña and Bajo Cinca.

History

Aragón was a Frankish feudal county (Jaca) before becoming a self-proclaimed kingdom, which was united with the kingdom of Pamplona (later Navarre) in 925. The kingdom of Pamplona included the counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza, and the duchy of Castilla. After King Sancho´s death, the kingdom was divided between his sons. Ramiro I was initially named king of Aragon; later, after his brother Gionzalo´s death, also of Sobrarbe and Ribagorza. The new kingdom grew quickly, and incorporated Navarra. This kingdom conquered the city of Zaragoza in 1118. Split from the kingdom of Navarre, the kingdom of Aragón was re-established in 1035 and lasted until 1707. Aragón was also the name of the crown, because of the dynastic union of a Count of Barcelona (Ramon Berenguer IV) with a Queen of Aragón (Petronila of Aragon), their son inheriting all their respective territories. This Crown was effectively disbanded after the dynastic union with Castile (see below). The Kings of Aragón (called by some present-day historians "Kings of Aragón and Counts of Barcelona") ruled territories that consisted of not only the present administrative region of Aragón but also Catalonia, and later the Balearic Islands, Valencia, Sicily, Naples and Sardinia (see Aragonese Empire). The King of Aragón was the direct King of the Aragonese region, and held also the title of King of Valencia, King of Mallorca (for a time), Count of Barcelona, Lord of Montpellier, and, only temporarily, Duke of Athens and Neopatria. Each of these titles gave him sovereignty over a certain region, and these titles changed as he lost and won territories. The real centre of this kingdom was Barcelona, since it had a seaport and was near the geographical centre of the Crown of Aragon, while Valencia was the most important seaport for trade until approximately the 18th century. Present-day historians usually call the Crown the Crown of Aragón, the "Catalan-Aragonese Confederation" or simply "Catalonia-Aragón", typically depending upon whether that historian lives in Aragón or in Catalonia. The Kingdom of Aragón is called simply Kingdom of Aragón. Saying just "Aragón" is ambiguous and should be avoided. Barcelona was the center of what was in many ways a Mediterranean Empire, ruling the Mediterranean Sea and setting rules for the entire sea (for instance, in the Llibre del Consolat del Mar, in Catalan).

List of Chancellors

- Alfons de la Cavalleria 1494-1508
- Tomás de Malferit 1508
- Antoni Agustí de Sicart 1508-1523
- Frederic Honorat de Gualbes de Vallseca (for the Principality of Catalonia) 1523-1529
- Jeronimo de Rage (for Aragón Kingdom) 1523-1529
- Eiximèn Perez de Figuerola (for Valencia Kingdom) 1523-1529
- Joan Sunyer 1529-1533
- Miquel Mai 1533-1546
- Jeroni Descoll de Oliva 1546-1554
- Pere de Clariana de Seva 1554-1562
- Bernardo de Bolea y Portugal 1562-1585
- Simó Friigola 1585-1598
- Dídac Civarrubias Sanç 1598-1607
- Diego Clavera 1608-1612
- Andreu Roig 1612-1622
- President Garci Peréz de Araciel 1623-1624
- President Juan Manuel de Mendoza Luna Manrique, marquis of Montesclaros 1628
- President Enrique Pimentel, bishop of Cuenca 1628-1632
- President Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, duke of Alburquerque 1632-1637
- President Gaspar de Borja y de Velasco 1637-1645
- Maties Bayetola Cabanilles 1646-1652
- Cristòfor Crespí de Vallclaura Brizuela 1652-1671
- Melcior de Navarra Rocafull 1671-1677
- President Pasqual d'Aragó Folc de Cardona 1677
- President Pere Antoni d'Aragó Folc de Cardona i Córdoba 1677-1690
- Melcior de Navarra Rocafull 1690-1691 (second time)
- President Gaspar Téllez Girón y Sandoval, duke of Osuna 1692-1694
- President Ferran de Montcada-Aragó i de Montcada 1695-1698
- President Rodrigo Manuel Manrique de Lara y de Tabora 1698-1702
- President Iñigo de la Cruz Manrique de Lara y Ramiréz de Arellano, count of Aguilar and Frigiliana 1702-1707 See list of Kings of Aragón. See list of Lieutenants of the Kingdom of Aragón The dynastic union of Castile and Aragon in 1479, when Ferdinand II of Aragon wed Isabella I of Castile, led to the formal creation of Spain as a single entity in 1516. See List of S

Ferdinand II of Aragon

See also

Spanish language

"Spanish" or "Castilian"

Classification and related languages

History

Geographic distribution

Variations

Grammar

Sounds

Lexical stress

Writing system

Examples of Spanish

See also

Local varieties

External links

About the Spanish language

Dictionaries

Grammatical help

Tutorials

Resources

March 10

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

External links

June 23

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

External links

Aragon

Language

History

List of Chancellors